Table of
Contents
Maps:
Culture
Groups of the
All About Baskets:
Basketry
Types and Uses
Materials
Techniques
Designs and
Decoration
Activities:
Weaving a
Plaited Basket
Design
Names
Decorate
Your Own Basket
Glossary
Recommended
Additional Resources
Bibliography
Map of
Tribal
Locations in the Early 1800s
All About Baskets
Basketry
Types and Uses
Basketry
has been practiced for thousands of years by Native peoples of
There are
many different types of baskets, with countless variations on these types made
by different tribes and individual artists.
Some basket types that can be seen in museums are no longer a part of
the daily lives of Native peoples. Many
other kinds of basketry, however, maintain significant roles in Native cultures. The descriptions which follow provide just a
few examples of important types of basketry.
Food Gathering, Storage and
Preparation
Basketry
played an important role in the gathering, storage and preparation of
food. Baskets were (and, in some cases,
still are) used to gather roots, berries, shellfish and other foods. Sturdy burden baskets capable of holding
large and heavy loads were worn on the back and carried using a tumpline. Baskets made for gathering berries were often
woven from flexible materials which allowed the basket to be folded and stored
flat. Containers used to gather
shellfish and other seafood used very open weaves, allowing for easy rinsing
and water drainage.
Once
gathered, food was often kept in storage baskets. These varied in size
depending on the items being stored.
Basketry covers made of cedar bark were used by some tribes to place
over dishes or boxes filled with food.
The
preparation of foods often relied on basketry.
Berries and roots could be dried on woven mats spread out in the
sun. Loosely woven basketry was used to
strain oil from certain kinds of fish.
Baskets
were used for cooking in several ways.
Shellfish could be steamed in openwork baskets. Closely woven, watertight containers were
also used to cook foods. Red-hot rocks
were placed in a water-filled basket, bringing the water to boil and cooking
the contents. As the rocks cooled off,
they were removed from the water with wooden tongs and replaced with newly
heated rocks. As metal cooking vessels
first introduced by European traders became commonplace, the use of basketry
for cooking declined.
Furnishings and Garments
Furnishings
made from basketry include mats, chests, trunks and cradles. Mats are made in a wide range of sizes and
are woven with a variety of materials such as cedar bark, cattail leaves or tule. Mats have been
used for canoe sails, house partitions and for padding on which to sleep and
eat.
Garments
are another important category of basketry.
Rain capes can be made using shredded cedar bark or the flat leaves of
cattail. Both of these materials shed
water, providing excellent protection from the rain. Cedar bark can also be used for making aprons,
skirts and hats. Hats provide protection
from both sun and rain. For the most
efficient barrier to rain, southern Northwest Coat hats are often constructed
from two separate, woven layers. The
inner and the outer hats are joined at the rims. Basketry hats made in a variety of techniques
can be seen today at potlatches, powwows and other special events.
Ceremonial Uses
Ceremonies
may feature basketry which displays crests or signifies prestige. (Crests are family emblems which are
considered owned property.) Woven hats
sometimes have crest designs painted on their exterior. On the northern
A few
baskets are regarded so highly that they are considered crests themselves. Among the Chilkat Tlingit, for example, an enormous basket known as Kuhk-claw, or “Mother Basket,” was woven in
the 1800s. Measuring almost three feet
both in height and diameter, the basket was used to hold large quantities of
food. Through its repeated use and
display at potlatches, the basket earned the status of a crest. Today, this basket is both a source of pride
and a precious heirloom for the family to which it belongs.
Baskets Made for
Baskets
made for sale are an important category of basketry and often comprise a large
percentage of museum basketry collections.
During the late 1800s and early 1900s, the volume of baskets produced
for sale to non-Native persons increased dramatically. Basketry became an
important source of income for many families.
This time period coincides with increased collecting efforts by private
individuals and museums. Growing numbers
of tourists came to the western
Basketry Today
While it is
an ancient art, basketry is a tradition which continues to thrive today. In the past, basket making was the domain of
women. Today, both men and women
practice basketry, although it remains a predominantly female art. Contemporary weavers, like their mothers and
grandmothers before them, often achieve positions of great respect in their
communities. Basketry also continues to
provide significant income for skilled weavers.
No longer viewed solely as ethnographic specimens or souvenir art,
Native-made basketry has entered the realm of fine art. Basket makers today sell their wares at powwows,
art galleries and museum shops. In
creating their art, Native weavers continue a living tradition that strengthens
the link between past and present.
Materials
Sources
Materials
used in basketry vary, depending upon the type of basket being made, its
intended function, the tastes of the maker and the materials available. A basket used for heavy loads would use
stiff, sturdy material such as cedar withe or cedar
root. A container made to fold flat
requires flexible material such as spruce root.
A basket made for sale and not intended for actual use can use
especially fine, thin or delicate materials in its construction.
Some of the
more common materials used in basketry include cedar bark, cedar root, spruce
root, cattail leaves and tule. Elements used for decoration include
maidenhair fern stems, horsetail root, red cherry bark and a variety of
grasses. These materials vary widely in
color and appearance. Some have a matte surface, while others, such as red
cherry bark, appear shiny.
Gathering
and Processing the Materials
Most raw
materials used in weaving are harvested or gathered at specific times of the
year. This ensures that the materials
are collected when they are best suited for weaving. Weavers understand the growing cycles of the
natural materials they use and recognize when a tree or plant is ready for
harvesting. Often, special prayers are
said or songs are sung by the weaver while she gathers and processes her
materials.
Most materials are collected in the
spring or early summer. This includes
grasses, which must be picked at just the right time. If it is too early in the season, certain
grasses are too soft or narrow for weaving.
Other kinds, such as reed canary grass, need to be harvested before the
plant blooms. Catherine Pascal, a
We pick it along the highway up the valley before it
blooms. After it blooms, it’s no
good. Then we steam it or put it in
boiling water and leave it on the line for a whole week. Then we cut it up all in bundles and put it
away till we use it (Steltzer 109).
The bark of both red and
yellow cedar is gathered when the tree sap is running, normally between April
and July. The sap allows the bark to be
pulled off easily from the tree. To
obtain a long, even length of bark, the weaver makes a horizontal cut into the
tree several feet from the ground, then pulls the bark
away from the tree. As the strip travels
up the trunk, the weaver backs away from the tree. The strip, usually a few inches wide, is
removed from the tree with a twisting motion.
As long as only one or two strips are taken from the same tree, the
removal of the bark will not harm the tree.
Once
removed, the outer cedar bark is removed from the inner bark by folding and
peeling the bark by hand. Stubborn spots
on the bark may require the use of a knife.
It is the inner bark which is used for basketry. The inner bark is washed, dried and gathered
into bundles. It can now be stored for
later weaving projects.
Spruce or cedar root can be
gathered at any time of the year, although cedar root is often collected in the
spring, at the same time when the bark is harvested. Roots growing along a beach or sandy river
bank are easiest to collect. The most
preferable roots are long, straight and even.
Roots are carefully pulled from the ground by hand or with the help of a
digging implement. This task requires
patience and physical strength. In order not to harm the trees, usually only one root is removed
from each tree.
After they
are gathered, the roots are bundled and heated over a fire. After heating, the roots are unbundled and
pulled through a split wooden stick which removes the outer bark. The roots are then split one or more times, rebundled and stored until needed.
If properly
prepared and stored, materials can be kept for years before use. Although stored dry, materials are soaked in
water before they are used in weaving.
This makes them pliable and easier to use. While the basket maker is working, the
weaving materials and the object being made are constantly moistened to keep
them flexible.
Dyeing
Materials
Grasses as
well as roots, bark and stems are sometimes dyed before they are used in
weaving. There are a number of natural
dye sources which provide a wide palette of colors. Red can be obtained from
wild cranberries, nettle, hemlock bark, alder bark, alder
wood and sea-urchin juice. Lichen, wolf
moss and Oregon grape root provide yellow.
Salal berries are a source for dark blue
color, while copper oxides provide a green-blue pigment. Purple hues can be obtained from
huckleberries and blueberries.
Aniline
dyes, introduced by European traders in the late 1860s, provided brighter
colors and a wider color range than most natural dyes. Many weavers switched to commercial pigments
when they became available, producing baskets with vibrantly colored
designs. Today, some weavers choose to
use commercial pigments for dyeing weaving materials, while many others prefer
to use natural sources for dyes.
The Decline
of Natural Materials
One problem
facing many contemporary weavers is the decline of certain raw materials used
in basketry making. This scarcity is due
in large part to the destruction of natural habitat where raw materials are
found. Clear-cut logging removes old
growth cedars which supply the best tree roots.
Wetland areas, a rich source for many weaving materials, have been
subject to pollutants and draining which kill off or reduce the plant
life. The introduction of invasive,
exotic plant species has also negatively affected many indigenous plants. Additionally, some of the best gathering
places for basketry materials have restrictions on their use. Weavers may be unable to collect or harvest
the materials they need in such places.
Weaving
Techniques
There are three main weaving techniques: coiling, plaiting
and twining. Basketry of the
Coiling
Coiling is
a technique which involves sewing. A
foundation material (such as split root bundles) is coiled upwards and stitched
into place. A pointed tool called an awl
is used to pierce a hole in each coil.
The sewing element (such as the shiny outer surface of a split cedar
root) is then threaded through the hole and sews that coil down to the coil
below it.
Coiled
baskets can be woven so tightly that they hold water. In the past, coiled baskets were also used
for cooking.
On the
Plaiting
Plaiting,
also known as checker weave, is a straightforward technique in which the weft
crosses over and under one warp at a time.
When a plaited object is flat, such as with a mat, it can be difficult
to distinguish the weft from the warp.
When the
weft passes over or under more than one warp at a time, it results in a
decorative pattern known as twilling.
Plaiting can also be done a diagonal, or bias, weave.
Many twined
baskets start with a plaited bottom. The
weft and warp of the plaited bottom can be split into smaller pieces and become
the warp of the basket sides.
Twining
Twining is
a technique in which two wefts cross over each other between warps. There are numerous variations of twining,
including variances in the number of wefts, the number of warps crossed by the
wefts and the angle of the warps. Each
of these variations changes the surface appearance of the object.
Color
designs on twined basketry can be achieved with false embroidery or overlay.
Both these techniques add a third, colored weft to the usual two wefts. False embroidery is only incorporated into
the outside wefts, making the design visible only on the outer surface of the
object. False embroidery slants in an
opposite direction to the rest of the twining.
The name of this technique is based on the definition of true
embroidery, in which decorative material is added to the surface of an object after it has been completed. False embroidery is added to the surface of
basketry during its making.
Overlay
differs from false embroidery in that overlay’s extra weft is woven into both
the outside and inside wefts of the object.
Depending on the overlay twining technique used, the design may or may
not be visible on the inside surface.
Unlike false embroidery, overlay slants in the same direction as the
rest of the twining.
Designs
and Decorations
Not all
basketry is adorned. Clam baskets and
baskets used for cooking, for example, are usually undecorated. Many other types of basketry, however, have
designs or motifs. Designs can be added
with imbrication, false embroidery or overlay. Designs may also be painted on the exterior
surface of an object after it is completed.
Additionally, variations in the weave can create patterns and raised
textures which form designs.
The designs
often give clues as to who made the basket.
Certain motifs are associated with particular tribes or geographic
areas. The form of the basket may also
reveal clues about its maker. Below are
a few examples of basketry styles which are associated with specific peoples.
Wasco/Wishxam
Wasco and Wishxam
peoples are from the
Wasco/Wishxam basketry is known
for stylized human faces and figures which represent ancestors or the “old
ones.” (“Wishxam”
is pronounced “wish-ram,” with the “r” at the back of the throat, like a French rolled “r.”)
The manner in which the figures are depicted is sometimes called “x-ray
style” due to their skeletal appearance.
The ancient roots of this design style can be seen in a precontact pictograph of a being known as Tsagaglalal (pronounced “tsa-ga-gla-lal”
and meaning “She-Who-Watches”), located near
The most familiar
form of Wasco/Wishxam basketry is a flexible, cylindrical, twined container
known as a Sally bag. Although there are numerous interpretations explaining
the origin of this name, there is not one definitive explanation. In the Wishxam
language, this basket is called akw’alkt.
Twana
Speakers of the Twana language
are the Twana, Skokomish
and Quilcene peoples.
They come from western
Twana weavers are best known
for producing soft twined baskets which feature a horizontal band of animals
woven just below the rim. The animals
may include birds, wolves and dogs.
Although they appear very similar, images of dogs and wolves can be
distinguished from each other by the position of their tails: dog tails point
upwards, while wolf tails point downwards.
Large zigzags may also feature prominently in Twana weaving. This
is not a pattern unique to Twana weavers, however;
many other basket makers, including Klickitat, Nisqually
and
Makah and Nuu-chah-nulth
The home of the Makah people is
the northwestern tip of
Reflective of their whaling heritage, Makah
and Nuu-chah-nulth basketry often includes images of
whales and canoes filled with whalers.
These images originally appeared on whaler’s hats, but later were
incorporated into twined baskets, mats and basketry-covered bottles
made for sale. Whales are sometimes shown being chased or
harpooned by a canoe-full of hunters.
While most of these images show the traditional style of boat used by
whalers, some baskets include images of steamboats or other modern watercraft
aiding in the hunt.
The
whaler’s hat is a distinctive form of basketry found among Makah
and Nuu-chah-nulth peoples. A sign of high rank and prestige, it can be
easily recognized by its conical shape topped by an onion-shaped knob. Drawings made in the 1700s by European
explorers show Makah and Nuu-chah-nulth
chiefs wearing this style of hat.
Haida
The Haida are from the
off the coast of
in
southeastern
Haida weavers have long used simple, solid, horizontal
bands to adorn their twined spruce
root basketry. The basket
shape is usually cylindrical.
Haida artists weave these baskets upside down. The
basket can be supported on a stake
with a wooden form inside.
This style of weaving results in the jog (see glossary) going up
to the right.
Tlingit
The Tlingit are from southeastern
Tlingit basketry is known for geometric designs which
appear
in horizontal bands around the body of the basket.
These designs often have descriptive names such as “leaves
of the fireweed” or “mouthtrack of the woodworm.”
Most Tlingit basketry is twined from finely split spruce
root
and decorated with false embroidery using grasses or fern
stems. During the late 1800s and early 1900s, Tlingit weavers
were
praised in many tourist guidebooks as the most skillful
basket makers on the
Unlike Haida weavers, Tlingit women
weave their
baskets
ride-side up, resulting in a jog which goes down to the right.
Activities
Weave a Plaited Basket
1. Cut all the
way around the outside edges of the “X” shape.
2. Turn the “X”
over and fold (but try not to crease!) one flap along the line that is made
with dots and dashes ( ).
3. Cut along
the three solid lines toward the center rectangle. Stop when you come to the first solid line. Do this for all four flaps. Unfold the flaps. Now you have the “warps” for your basket.
4. Turn the
paper over again and fold and crease along the broken lines ( ). Leave the flaps
so they point up toward the ceiling. Can
you see the beginnings of a basket? Good!
5. Take a long,
thin strip of a paper (called the “weft”) and weave it all the way around the
basket, passing first over and then
under each warp. If you crease the weft
at the corners, it will help you
form the basket shape. Tape or glue the
weft’s ends together where they meet, and cut any
long ends off with your scissors.
6. Repeat Step
5 with your other two paper strips, alternating where you go over and under the
warp (see illustration).
7. Show off
your basket to your friends!
A Twana Basket
Twana people
are from western
Follow these steps to design your own Twana-style
basket:
1. First, draw
a row of wolves around the top of
the basket (keep the wolves within the heavy
black lines).
2. Next, draw
what you think “crow’s shells” look
like. You can put this design anywhere on the basket.
3. Now add the
design “boxes.”
4. Finally,
draw some “flounder beds” on your
basket.
A Haida Hat
The Haida are
from the
Two designs used by Haida weavers
are called “spider’s web” and “snail’s tracks.” Draw what you think these designs look like
on the hat below.
Tlingit
Baskets
The Tlingit
are from southeastern
Tlingit weavers
have names for the different designs they use.
The baskets below have a design name written underneath each
basket. Based on the design name, draw
what you think the design looks like. To
make these Tlingit-style baskets, draw your design in
a band (shown by the dotted lines) around each basket.
“path of the woodworm”
“shaman’s hat”
“fish flesh”
Design Your
Own Basket
Glossary
awl: A pointed tool used in making coiled
baskets. The awl pierces a hole in each
coil to allow the sewing element
to be threaded through and sewn down to the coil below. Traditionally made of bone, today awls are often made from metal.
burden
basket:
A type of basket worn on the back and used for carrying large or heavy loads.
chevron: A geometric design element
shaped like the letter “V.”
coiling: A basketry technique in
which a foundation material (such as split root bundles) is coiled upwards and sewn into place.
crest: A family emblem which is
considered owned property. Crests are
used by central and northern
false
embroidery:
A technique used to decorate twined baskets in which a third, colored weft
element is incorporated into the outer
wefts. These designs are not visible on
the inside of the object. False embroidery slants in an opposite
direction to the rest of the twining.
geometric: (as in “geometric figures”
or “geometric designs”) Design elements which feature geometric shapes such as squares, triangles,
diamonds, chevrons or zigzags.
imbrication: A technique used to decorate
coiled baskets in which the decorative material is folded under each sewing stitch on the outer
surface of the basket. The design is not
visible on the inside of the
basket. Imbrication
folds on a basket resemble rows of corn kernels.
jog: In twined and coiled
baskets, a transition from one row of stitches to the next row. A jog can be up or down to the right or left, depending on how the basket was made (Haida basketry, for example,
usually jogs up to the right; Tlingit baskets jog
down to the right).
overlay: A technique used to decorate
twined baskets in which an additional, colored weft is incorporated into the other wefts. The resulting design may or may not be
visible on the inside of the
object, depending on whether full- or half-twist overlay is used. Overlay design slants in the same direction as the rest of the twining.
pigment:
Colors
obtained from natural or commercial sources. Natural pigments can be
obtained from berries, roots,
bark or minerals. Commercial pigments
often provide more vivid colors than those made
from natural sources.
pitch: The lean of the wefts; the
direction in which a stitch slants (up to the right, for example).
plaiting: A technique in which the
weft strand crosses over and under one warp strand at a time. Also known
as checker or checkerboard weave.
potlatch: An important
precontact: In First Nations history,
the period of time prior to European contact.
Sally bag: Cylindrical, flexible,
twined bags made by Wasco/Wishxam weavers.
start: The beginning weavings of a
basketry object (starts can be seen on the bottom of baskets or the tops of hats).
tule: Also known as bulrush, this
tall, thin plant is used in the construction of mats and bags.
tumpline: A carrying strap attached to
a basket which allows the basket to be carried on a person’s back.
The tumpline is worn across the forehead or chest.
twilling: A variation of plaiting or
twining in which the weft crosses over
more than one warp at a time. This variation in the weave results in diagonal
decorative patterns.
twining: A basketry technique in
which two horizontal strands (wefts) cross over each other between vertical strands (warps). There are a number of twining techniques,
including three-strand, twilled
and wrapped twining.
utilitarian: Made for a specific use,
rather than made solely for aesthetic reasons.
warp: In twined weaving, warps are
the vertical elements. In coiling, warp
refers to the foundation of coils.
weft: The horizontal element which
crosses over warps in twined weaving (also known as “woof”). In coiling,
weft refers to the sewing element.
withe: The thin, strong and
preferably long branches which hang down from the main branches of a tree such as cedar. Withes are used for making burden baskets, basket
handles and rope.
woof: See weft.
Recommended
American
Indian Basketry Magazine. Vols. I-IV (1980-85).
Bierwert, Crisca. Sahoyaleekw: Weaver’s
Art.
Emmons, George T. The Basketry of the Tlingit and the Chilkat Blanket.
Jones, Joan Megan. The Art and Style of Western
Indian Basketry.
Kuneki, Netti, Elsie Thomas and Marie Slockish. The Heritage
of Klickitat Basketry: A History and Art Preserved.
Lobb, Allan. Indian Baskets of the
Marr, Carolyn J. “Salish Baskets from the Wilkes
Expedition.” American Indian Art Magazine 9:3 (Summer 1984): 44-51, 71.
-----. “Wrapped
Twined Baskets of the Southern
-----. “Basketry Regions on
Nordquist, D.L. and
G.E. Nordquist.
Twana Twined Basketry.
Paul, Francis. Spruce Root Basketry of the
Porter, Frank W., III, ed. The Art
of Native American Basketry: A Living Legacy. NY:
Schlick, Mary Dodds.
Stewart, Hillary. Cedar.
Thompson,
Turnbaugh, William A.
and Sarah Peabody Turnbaugh. Basket
Tales of the Grandmothers: American Indian Baskets in Myth and Legend. Peace
-----. Indian Baskets.
Wright, Robin K., Ed.
A Time of Gathering: Native
Heritage in
“Tsimshian
Basketry.” In Tsimshian: Images of
the Past, Views for the Present.
Margaret Seguin, ed.
Additional
Resources
“. . . and Women Wove
It in a Basket.” Bushra Azzouz,
Marlene Farnum and Nettie
Jackson Kuneki.
Documentary video on the life
and work of Klickitat weaver Nettie Jackson.
Baskets of
the Northwest People: Gifts from the Grandmothers. Mimbres Fever.
Two-part video on basketry
from throughout the
Wildwoods Crafts and Basket
Kits.
Basketry kits include
instructions and all materials. “Pine
Needle Basket Kit” and “Coiled Style Basket” are two of the available kits.
Kunstdame.
Paper models of four
Most of these items are available from the
Bibliography:
Emmons, George T. “The Whale House of the Chilkat.” Anthropological Papers of the American
Harless, Susan E., ed. Native Arts of the Columbia Plateau: The
Doris Swayze Bounds Collection.
Holm, Bill. Spirit and Ancestor.
Jones, Megan Joan.
Laforet, Andrea. “Regional and Personal Style in
Marr, Carolyn.
“Continuity and Change in Basketry of
Oberg, Kalervo. The Social Economy of the Tlingit.
Schlick, Mary Dodds.
Steltzer, Ulli. Indian Artists at Work.
Stewart, Hillary. Cedar.
Wright, Robin K., Ed.
A Time of Gathering: Native
Heritage in
Special
thanks to Robin K. Wright, Susan Libonati-Barnes,
Katie Bunn-Marcuse, Dawn Glinsmann
and Deborah Swan for their comments, suggestions and information.
burden basket
storage basket
tourist art basket
activity: match type with suggested
uses
Klickitat style with loops at top - what do you think these
loops were used for?
what kind of material would you
want to use to make the loops?
clam basket:
You and your brother are at the beach gathering clams. You need something to store the clams in, but
you will also have to rinse the sand off the clams once they have been
collected. The clams will also be
heavy. What kind of basket would work
well for your needs? Would you want a
basket with a tight weave or a loose weave?
Would a tight weave allow water to drain from the basket? Do you think you would need a soft basket or
a hard basket to hold all your clams?
Which might offer more strength?
Why? What materials do you think
a hard basket might be made from?
Cooking basket:
watertight
flexible storage container:
You and your friends are out gathering blackberries
What kind of basket would you want? Would you want a large or small
container? Would you want the weave to
be loose or tight? How would you keep
your hands free for berrypicking while still keeping
the basket close to you?
How would you protect the picked berries from the sun? (flexible basket which can be folded over at the top, thus
protecting the berries from the sun and insects)
A small picking basket was used to collect berries; this
smaller basket would be emptied into a larger, sturdy basket worn on the berry
picker’s back.
GALLERY EXPLORATION FOR ENTWINED WITH LIFE
FIND
THE AREA LABELLED “USING BASKETS”
List 2 uses for baskets.
_________________________________________________________________________
FIND
THE AREA WITH THE DISPLAY OF WEAVING MATERIALS
List three materials used in basket making.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
FIND THE
AREA LABELLED “WEAVER’S ART”
The artists who made these baskets used many different
designs or patterns in their work.
Can you find the following items which have been used in
decorating a basket?
______ a human hand
______ a whale
______ a walrus head
______ a flower
______ a television set
FIND THE
AREA LABELLED “STUDYING BASKETS”
Find the largest basket in this area. What people made this basket?
__________________________________________________________________________________
Find the smallest basket in this area. What people made this basket?
__________________________________________________________________________________
What do you think each of these baskets might have been used
for?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
What is your favorite basket in this exhibit? Who made this basket? What would you use this basket for?
Draw a picture of the basket.